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UNIVERSITY     OF     ILLINOIS     BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXIII  January  4,  1926  No.  18 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
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EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  41 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


MODIFYING 

TECHNIQUE  OF  INSTRUCTION 

FOR  GIFTED  CHILDREN 

By. 
M.  E.  Herriott 

Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 

m  UBMRT  Of  1HI 
FEB  22  1926 

^VESSMY  OF  SIUNO 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

URBANA 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/modifyingtechniq41herr 


0  P& 


MODIFYING  TECHNIQUE  OF  INSTRUCTION 
FOR  GIFTED  CHILDREN 

I.   INTRODUCTION 

Purpose  of  following  discussion.  The  purpose  of  the  following 
discussion  is  to  present  some  of  the  modifications  of  technique  of  instruc- 
tion which  are  desirable  in  teaching  gifted  children  in  classes  of  unse- 
lected  elementary-school  pupils.1 

The  term  "technique  of  instruction"  is  used  to  designate  the  pro- 
cedures of  the  teacher  in  stimulating  and  guiding  pupils  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  and  in  the  formation  of  specific  habits,  attitudes,  and 
ideals.  It  includes  those  things  which  the  teacher  does  to  stimulate  the 
pupils  to  study,  those  things  which  she  does  to  direct  them  in  their 
study,  and  also  the  formulation  of  the  exercises  which  she  assigns  for 
them  to  do. 

Inasmuch  as  the  term  "gifted"  is  a  relative  designation  and  "there 
is  no  definite  line  of  demarcation,.  .  .  .between  a  normal  standard  child 
and  a  superior  (gifted)  child"2  gifted  children  are  here  defined  only  in 
general  terms  as  those  of  "rounded,"  accelerated  development.  Such 
pupils  constitute  approximately  the  upper  one  tenth  of  an  ordinary 
class.  Their  I.  Q.'s  will  usually  range  from  130  upward,  although  occa- 
sionally they  may  register  as  low  as  120.3 

Discussion  confined  to  classes  of  unselected  children.  Administra- 
tive procedures  such  as  homogeneous  grouping  in  connection  with  differ- 
entiated curricula,  extra  promotions  and  individualized  instruction  have 
received  much  attention  as  provisions  for  individual  differences  in  gen- 
eral, and  for  gifted  children  in  particular.  In  fact  an  examination  of 
current  educational  literature  suggests  that  most  of  the  attempts  to  pro- 
vide for  individual  differences  have  been  largely  administrative.  The 
possibility  of  providing  for  the  needs  of  gifted  children  by  these  and 


1It  is  assumed  that  education  should  be  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
needs  of  all  pupils  in  order  that  the  individual  may  be  developed  to  the  fullest  extent 
feasible,  and  that  anything  which  will  assist  in  the  achievement  of  this  ideal  is  worthy 
of  consideration.  No  attempt  is  made  to  justify  this  hypothesis  other  than  to  say  that 
it  is  a  generally  accepted  educational  ideal  at  present. 

2Baldwin,  Bird  T.  "Methods  of  selecting  superior  or  gifted  children."  Twenty- 
Third  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloom- 
ington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924,  p.  37. 

3The  terms  "gifted,"  "superior,"  and  "bright"  are  used  almost  synonymously  in 
this  circular. 

[3] 


similar  schemes  without  variations  in  the  technique  of  instruction  is 
recognized,  but  it  seems  highly  improbable  that  such  provisions  will 
suffice.  Even  with  administrative  schemes  operating  to  their  greatest 
efficiency,  it  appears  that  there  must  still  be  need  for  modifications  in 
the  technique  of  instruction  to  suit  the  varying  natures  and  capacities 
of  pupils. 

This  circular  is  confined  to  a  consideration  of  gifted  children  in 
unselected  classes,  for,  while  there  are  large  numbers  of  gifted  boys  and 
girls  in  our  schools,4  there  are  relatively  few  classes  of  segregated 
superior  pupils  at  present.  For  some  time  to  come,  and  perhaps  always, 
especially  in  the  smaller  schools  where  segregation  is  administratively 
impracticable,  most  of  our  gifted  children  will  be  taught  in  unselected 
classes. 

Earlier  completion  of  elementary  school  not  considered.  Although 
earlier  completion  of  the  work  ordinarily  prescribed  in  our  schools  is 
sometimes  one  of  the  chief  aims  in  adjustments  made  for  gifted  children, 
it  is  not  given  consideration  here  because  of  the  limitations  placed  upon 
the  problem.  For  the  purpose  of  this  circular,  the  assumption  is  that 
all  normal  and  all  gifted  children  will  progress  through  the  schools  at 
the  same  rate  and  in  the  same  groups,  so  long  as  they  are  not  segregated 
into  special-ability  classes.5 

Method  of  securing  suggestions  for  modifications  of  technique. 

Suggestions  for  modifications  of  teaching  techniques  have  been  derived 
from  two  types  of  sources:  first,  from  those  few  articles  on  gifted 
children  which  deal  specifically  with  the  technique  of  instruction,6  and 
second,  from  comprehensive  and  authoritative  articles  on  the  character- 
istics of  superior  children,  in  which  certain  modifications  of  technique 
are  implied. 

Chief  sources  of  information.  The  Nineteenth  Yearbook,  Part  II, 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  the  Twenty-Third 
Yearbook,  Part  I,  and  the  Twenty-Fourth  Yearbook,  Part  II,  which 


"Children  with  I.  Q.'s  above  125  are  estimated  by  Rugg  to  number  close  to  500,000 
in  our  elementary  schools,  with  a  similar  number  in  our  high  schools. 

Rugg,  Harold  O.  "The  curriculum  for  gifted  children."  Twenty-Third  Yearbook 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company.  1924,  p.  91. 

5This  statement  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  gifted  children  may  not  be  given 
extra  promotions. 

Within  the  last  few  years  there  have  been  hundreds  of  articles  written  about 
gifted  children,  their  characteristics  and  treatment.  For  example,  the  Twenty-Third 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I,  "The  education 
of  gifted  children,"  contains  an  annotated  bibliography  of  453  titles,  but  only  a  few  of 
these  deal  directly  with  the  technique  of  teaching. 

[4] 


purport  to  summarize  much  of  the  work  that  has  been  going  on,  have 
furnished  the  greater  part  of  the  information.  In  addition  to  these,  a 
great  many  articles  in  educational  journals  have  been  examined,  but 
only  a  few  have  furnished  usable  material. 

Limitations.  Limitations  are  imposed  by  the  dearth  of  educational 
literature  bearing  directly  upon  the  technique  of  teaching  gifted  children 
in  unsegregated  classes;  a  fact  which  indicates  that  small  attention  has 
been  given  to  this  phase  of  dealing  with  them.  In  consequence,  there  is 
little  experimental  foundation  on  which  to  build,  and  a  large  probability 
of  error  in  the  inferences  as  to  the  techniques  that  should  be  used. 
Although  the  recommendations  made  later  are  apparently  valid,  they 
must  be  qualified  because  of  this  limitation. 


[S] 


II.    FACTORS  TO  BE  CONSIDERED  IN  MODIFYING 

TECHNIQUE 

1.  Characteristics  of  gifted  children.  Gifted  children  have  been 
described  previously  as  children  of  "rounded,"  accelerated  development, 
who  usually  have  I.  Q.'s  of  130  or  above  and  who  are  among  the  upper 
one  tenth  of  an  ordinary  class.  However,  the  term  "gifted"  is  only 
relative  and  no  definite  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  which  will 
mark  off  the  gifted  from  those  who  are  not  gifted.  Still,  some  of  the 
characteristics  which  by  their  degree  of  development  distinguish  superior 
children  from  the  mediocre  can  be  named  and  described. 

Physical  characteristics.  In  general,  those  who  are  mentally  supe- 
rior are  not  physically  inferior,  as  has  been  commonly  believed,  but 
tend  to  be  somewhat  above  the  average  in  this  respect.  That  is,  mental 
and  physical  superiority  tend  to  accompany  each  other.7  Of  course, 
there  is  occasionally  a  high-strung,  and  physically  under-developed 
child  who  also  possesses  high  mental  ability,  but  he  is  rare  and  should 
be  dealt  with  as  a  special  case.  Furthermore,  this  infrequent  type  is 
eliminated  from  consideration  here  by  virtue  of  the  original  description 
of  gifted  children  as  "rounded."  The  fact  that  mental  and  physical 
superiority  tend  to  accompany  one  another  means  that  there  is  no  need 
for  laying  great  stress  on  the  probability  of  overworking  gifted  children 
and  thus  injuring  their  health. 

Social  traits.  Much  evidence  regarding  the  social  traits  of  gifted 
children  has  been  assembled  by  Helen  Davis.8  From  her  study  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions  seem  justified.  Superior  children  tend  to  associate 
with  others  of  similar  mental  age,  although  they  mingle  easily  with  all 
children  and  "usually  show  little  difficulty  in  adjusting  themselves  either 
to  an  older  or  to  a  younger  group."  They  are  popular  on  the  playground 
and  are  chosen  for  positions  of  responsibility  more  often,  proportionally, 
than  are  normal  children.  They  are  leaders  and  in  general  have  a 
wholesome  attitude  toward  their  fellows. 


^Baldwin,  Bird  T.    Op.  cit.,  p.  38. 

Davis,  Helen.  "Personal  and  social  characteristics  of  gifted  children."  Twenty- 
Third  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Blooming- 
ton,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924,  p.  126. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.  "The  physical  and  mental  traits  of  gifted  children."  Twenty- 
Third  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloom- 
ington,  Illinois:   Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924,  p.  159. 

8Davis,  Helen.    Op.  cit.,  p.  127. 

[6] 


Moral  and  character  traits.  Davis9  and  Terman10  both  report  dis- 
tinct superiority  in  the  moral  and  character  traits  of  gifted  children. 
Such  children  ranked  higher  in  these  respects  when  rated  by  individuals 
as  well  as  when  measured  by  a  number  of  tests,  such  as  the  Rauben- 
heimer  test  of  social  attitudes  and  the  Woodworth-Cady  test  of  emo- 
tional instability.  Terman  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  "the  danger  of 
over-intellectualization  at  the  expense  of  normal  development  along 
social  and  moral  lines  is  probably  much  less  than  some  have  believed 
it  to  be." 

Mental  characteristics.11  The  description  of  gifted  children  as 
"superior"  or  even  as  being  characterized  by  "rounded,  accelerated  de- 
velopment" and  I.Q.'s  above  130  fails  to  specify  their  mental  charac- 
teristics which  are  significant  when  considering  the  instructional 
procedures  that  should  be  employed.  For  the  purpose  of  description 
the  mental  traits  of  gifted  children  may  be  grouped  under  power,  atti- 
tudes, general  mental  habits,  and  versatility. 

Power  to  learn  is  a  distinctive  characteristic  of  gifted  children.  They 
show  marked  ability  to  "absorb"  knowledge  much  more  quickly  than 
normal  children;  they  read  more  rapidly,  remember  more,  and  with 
greater  vividness.  They  have  an  unusual  power  of  focusing  their  atten- 
tion upon  a  task  and  they  are  able  to  stay  by  a  thing  without  fatigue 
much  longer  than  the  average.  They  generalize  readily;  they  quickly 
see  underlying  principles  and  relate  similars,  or  in  other  words,  they 
have  a  more  logical  way  of  thinking.  All  of  the  above  is  only  another 
way  of  saying  that  gifted  children  are  more  adept  in  their  thinking. 

The  attitude  or  mind  set  of  gifted  children  is  a  second  significant 
characteristic.  They  have  an  abounding  intellectual  curiosity  or  desire 
to  "know  about"  almost  everything,  and  are  thus  led  to  forge  ahead 
into  new  fields  of  knowledge.  They  desire  to  excel  and  this  is  another 
force  that  drives  them  forward.  Along  with  these  two  characteristics  is 
an  active  imagination.  But  these  three  are  held  in  leash  and  guided  by 
three  other  traits:  common  sense,  broadmindedness,  and  an  unusual 
tendency  and  ability  for  self-criticism,  the  first  two  being  of  a  somewhat 
indefinite  character.  Lastly,  they  usually  possess  a  highly  developed 
sense  of  humor. 


9Davis,  Helen.    Op.  cit.,  p.  132. 

10Terman,  Lewis  M.    Op.  cit.,  p.  161-64. 

"Davis,  Helen.    Op.  cit.,  p.  129-32. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.    Op.  cit.,  p.  164. 

Waddle,  Charles  W.  "Case  histories  of  gifted  children."  Twenty-Third  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924,  p.  185-207. 

[7] 


General  mental  habits  refer  to  methods  of  work  or  study.  Gifted 
children  usually  exhibit  highly  efficient  methods  of  study  but  this  trait 
depends  more  upon  the  training  they  have  received  than  do  power  and 
attitude.  When  pupils  with  high  I.  Q.'s  are  found  to  be  inferior  in  their 
accomplishments  in  schools,  the  cause  is  usually  poor  habits  of  study12 
which  have  been  developed.  Pupils  who  excel  in  school  are  found  to 
have  superior  study  habits.13  In  experiments  with  supervised  study, 
such  as  the  well-known  one  by  Breslich,14  it  is  shown  that  the  slower 
pupils  profit  most  under  supervised  study  and  the  bright  pupils  seem 
to  excel  when  left  to  study  alone.  No  doubt  gifted  children  succeed 
better  when  not  too  closely  supervised,  largely  because  they  have  formed 
good  study  habits,  with  which  so-called  "supervision"  often  interferes, 
although  the  same  supervision  improves  the  study  habits  of  the  poorer 
pupils. 

Versatility  also  characterizes  superior  children.  They  have  a  very 
wide  range  of  interests.  They  are  well  known  for  their  linguistic  pro- 
pensities. They  have  been  found  to  excel  in  music  and  art  on  the  theory 
side,  although  in  execution  there  is  a  dependence  on  what  is  commonly 
called  "talent."  Contrary  to  common  belief,  some  authorities  claim  that 
gifted  children  can  and  do  excel  in  mechanical  ability. 

2.  Educational  outcomes  desired  for  gifted  children.  The  out- 
comes desired  constitute  another  set  of  factors  which  must  be  given 
careful  consideration  in  determining  variations  in  methods  of  teaching. 
In  this  connection  one  may  well  ask  the  question:  Are  the  outcomes  of 
education  which  are  desired  for  gifted  children  different  from  those 
which  are  generally  desired  for  "average"  children?  An  affirmative 
answer  is  usually  given. 

Gifted  children  should  develop  a  "social  likemindedness"  along 
with  the  others,  that  is,  they  are  to  develop  a  community  of  interests 
with  all  others  in  our  schools.  The  requirements  in  the  tool  subjects — 
reading,  arithmetic,  grammar,  spelling,  and  handwriting — are  practi- 
cally the  same  for  all  pupils,  whether  mediocre  or  gifted.  It  is  in  the 
informational  or  thought-provoking  subjects  that  the  superior  children 
are  to  develop  their  capacities  to  the  fullest  extent.  They  are  being 
educated  to  be  the  leaders  of  the  future.   They  should  develop  superior 


"Habits  of  study  may  be  taken  as  an  index  of  mental  habits  in  general. 

13For   an   analysis   of   how   bright   children   study,   see: 
Monroe,  Walter  S.  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.    "Training  in  the  technique  of 
study."   University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22.  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  No.  20.   Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1924,  p.  47-52. 

"Breslich,  Ernst  R.    "Teaching  high-school  pupils  how  to  study,"  School  Review, 
20:505-15,  October,  1912. 

[8] 


ability  to  think,  particularly  to  think  abstractly,  superior  ability  in  oral 
expression,  superior  social  intelligence,  and  superior  qualities  of  leader- 
ship. It  is  in  these  various  ways  that  the  gifted  are  to  realize  their  full- 
ness of  growth.  In  the  content  subjects,  especially,  the  aims  of  education 
are  not  merely  to  give  the  superior  pupils  such  parts  as  may  be  consid- 
ered "minimal  essentials."  Rather,  the  chief  aims  are  to  encourage  and 
to  develop  the  more  intangible  abilities,  such  as  power  of  abstraction 
and  social  ideals,  to  the  fullest  extent  possible  for  the  individual. 

To  summarize,  gifted  children  should,  first  of  all,  develop  a  com- 
munity of  interests,  skills,  knowledge,  and  ideals,  with  the  others  of  the 
social  group;  but  beyond  this  they  should  gain  additional  knowledge, 
additional  power  to  reason,  to  originate,  to  lead  others,  and  to  work  and 
think  independently.  But  even  more  important  are  the  more  indefinite 
outcomes:  right  attitudes,  good  habits  of  industry  and  hard  work,  co- 
operativeness,  responsibility,  and  initiative. 

3.  Limitations  due  to  instruction  in  classes.  The  conditions  that 
necessarily  accompany  teaching  in  classes  as  opposed  to  individual 
instruction  constitute  a  third  set  of  factors  which  must  be  given  consid- 
eration in  adjusting  the  technique  of  instruction  to  the  needs  of  gifted 
children.  Ideally,  it  should  be  necessary  only  to  consider  the  character- 
istics of  the  pupils  and  the  results  to  be  obtained,  but  practically  the 
conditions  imposed  by  instruction  in  classes  change  considerably  some 
techniques  that  would  be  employed  under  ideal  conditions. 

Either  of  two  points  of  view  may  be  taken:  first,  that  an  ideal 
technique  of  instruction  may  be  determined  and  then  modified  to  suit 
the  exigencies  of  mass  instruction;  or  secondly,  that  the  conditions 
of  class  instruction  may  be  modified  so  that  an  ideal  technique  will  be 
approximated.  The  latter  point  of  view  is  taken  in  this  circular.  The 
modifications  of  technique  of  instruction  which  are  suited  to  the  needs 
of  gifted  children  are  determined  from  the  interplay  of  the  character- 
istics of  gifted  pupils  and  the  educational  outcomes  desired.  In  connec- 
tion with  each  proposed  modification  of  technique,  when  there  is  need 
for  it,  some  suggestions  are  made  for  readjusting  the  usual  classroom 
conditions  and  management  of  the  class. 


[9] 


III.   DESIRABLE  ADAPTATIONS  OF  TECHNIQUE 

Two  types  of  adaptation  of  technique.  There  are  essentially  two 
types  of  modifications  of  technique  which  are  possible.  Both  are  often 
made  to  some  extent,  although  not  always  differentiated.  The  first  ad- 
justment is  in  the  learning  exercises  assigned  and  the  outcomes  expected 
to  be  produced.  The  second  adjustment  is  in  the  teacher's  direction  of 
the  doing  of  these  learning  exercises. 

In  order  to  establish  the  certainty  of  a  common  terminology  in 
this  respect,  the  term  "learning  exercise"  is  used  here  to  denote  those 
things,  exercises,  which  pupils  are  asked  to  do  as  a  basis  for  educative 
activity.  Typical  learning  exercises  are:  an  arithmetical  problem  to  be 
solved,  a  question  to  be  answered,  a  paragraph  to  be  read,  or  a  rule  to 
be  explained. 

Those  things  which  the  teacher  does  in  directing  pupils  in  their 
doing  of  learning  exercises  constitute  the  second  phase  of  technique  to 
be  considered  in  making  adjustments. 

Modifications  of  learning  exercises  for  gifted  pupils.  The  modifi- 
cations of  learning  exercises  which  seem  appropriate  for  gifted  children 
have  been  grouped  under  six  heads. 

1.  Drill  reduced.  Nearly  all  who  have  written  directly  on  adap- 
tation of  methods  of  instruction  to  gifted  children  emphasize  the  fact 
that  in  engendering  specific  habits  less  drill  is  needed  for  them  than  for 
average  pupils.  Superior  children  reach  a  desired  standard  of  attain- 
ment more  quickly  because  of  the  ease  of  assimilation  which  they 
possess,  and  continued  drill,  if  effective,  will  perfect  them  beyond  this 
standard.  But  ordinarily  it  is  not  desirable  to  carry  specific  habits  to 
any  considerably  higher  degree  of  perfection  with  gifted  children  than 
with  those  of  average  abilities.  After  formal  drill  on  a  process  is  dis- 
continued, superior  children  even  more  than  others  continue  to  perfect 
themselves  incidentally  while  they  are  using  the  process  as  a  means  to 
some  end.  An  estimate  based  upon  experimental  evidence  such  as  the 
work  in  Detroit,15  and  in  the  experimental  room  conducted  in  Urbana16 
several  years  ago,  shows  that  approximately  half  as  much  drill  will 
suffice  with  gifted  as  with  mediocre  pupils. 


"Cleveland,  Elizabeth.  "Detroit's  experiment  with  gifted  children,"  School  and 
Society,  12:179-83,  September  11,  1920. 

""'Classroom  problems  in  the  education  of  gifted  children."  Nineteenth  Yearbook 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1920,  p.  101. 

[10] 


It  is  also  true  that  drill  beyond  the  point  of  commensurate  returns 
is  likely  to  become  monotonous  and  distasteful  and  often  results  in 
antagonizing  the  pupils  or  at  least  in  divorcing  their  interest.  Gifted 
pupils  usually  realize  when  they  are  ready  to  forge  ahead  and  resent 
marking  time. 

In  the  drill  subjects17  of  handwriting,  spelling,  arithmetic,  and 
grammar,  the  first  requisite  is  a  well-established  set  of  standards  or 
objectives  to  be  attained.  These  objectives  should  be  arranged  by  units 
of  subject-matter  and  by  units  of  time,  and  should  be  in  terms  of  ability 
to  do  rather  than  ground  to  be  covered  or  exercises  to  be  done.  This 
organization  should  be  followed  by  a  continuous  program  of  testing  in 
order  to  ascertain  when  an  objective  has  been  achieved.  The  gifted 
children  will  attain  the  desired  degree  of  perfection  ahead  of  the  others 
and  may  then  be  excused  from  the  regular  drill  work  until  a  new  unit 
is  to  be  taken  up.  They  should  be  kept  busy,  however,  not  merely 
excused.  If  they  are  excused  from  the  regular  work  in  penmanship, 
they  may  take  up  some  closely  related  work  in  the  same  subject,  for 
instance,  pen  lettering  or  artistic  writing;  or  they  may  take  up  addi- 
tional work  in  one  of  their  other  subjects  if  they  are  in  need  of  it;  or 
they  may  be  allowed  to  pursue  special  interests  of  their  own,  such  as 
leisure  reading  in  the  library. 

Whatever  disposition  is  made  of  gifted  pupils  when  they  are  ex- 
cused from  the  regular  drill  work  of  the  class,  they  should  be  held 
strictly  accountable  for  their  activities.  If  they  are  allowed  to  waste 
the  period,  they  probably  will  develop  habits  of  indolence. 

2.  Formal  review  reduced.  Review  is  closely  allied  to  drill.  Per- 
haps it  is  only  another  form  of  drill  although  not  ordinarily  thought  of 
in  connection  with  the  term.  As  the  terms  are  usually  thought  of,  drill 
is  used  to  fix  specific  habits  and  review  is  to  revive  and  enrich  knowl- 
edge.18 The  preceding  discussion  relative  to  the  reduction  of  drill  is 
pertinent  to  review  also.  In  the  content  subjects,  such  as  geography 
and  history,  in  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  set  up  specific  objectives,  the 
problem  is  not  so  simple  as  in  the  drill  subjects;  but  there  is  greater 
opportunity  for  the  superior  pupils  to  develop  their  powers  to  the  full- 
est extent. 

Courses  of  study  should  definitely  outline  the  subjects,  designating 
so-called  minimal  subject-matter  and  providing  ample  additional  sub- 


1,Reading  is  intentionally  omitted  because  the  arguments  do  not  apply. 

18This  assumes  the  outcomes  of  teaching  to  be  classified  into  four  groups:  specific 
habits,  knowledge,  ideals,  and  attitudes.  For  a  discussion  of  such  a  classification,  see: 
Bagley,  William  C.  and  Keith,  John  A.  H.  An  Introduction  to  Teaching.  New 
York:    The  Macmillan  Company,  1924,  p.  210-61. 

[11] 


ject-matter  for  those  who  go  beyond  the  bare  minimum.  This  must  be 
followed  by  careful  testing,  both  formal  and  informal,  to  determine 
when  the  minimal  subject-matter  has  been  mastered.  Additional  sub- 
ject-matter, which  often  will  involve  books  other  than  the  textbook, 
should  be  assigned.  If  possible,  these  books  should  be  in  the  classroom, 
but  where  this  is  impractical  and  the  books  are  in  the  school  library,  the 
pupils  may  be  permitted  to  go  there  to  do  their  reading. 

During  the  so-called  recitation  period,  the  entire  class  ordinarily 
should  be  together.  Differentiations  can  be  made  between  the  gifted 
children  and  the  others  by  having  special  reports,  by  letting  the  superior 
children  contribute  from  their  readings  outside  of  the  textbook,  by  giv- 
ing them  opportunity  to  help  the  others  out  of  difficulties,  by  directing 
the  more  taxing  questions  to  the  brighter  ones,  or  by  other  related 
means. 

3.  Fewer  illustrations  used.  Superior  pupils,  because  of  their  ease 
of  assimilation,  need  fewer  illustrations  to  assist  them  in  comprehending 
generalizations  and  abstractions.  Superior  children  also  readily  call  up 
illustrations  from  their  own  personal  or  vicarious  experience.  This  type 
of  illustration  has  much  more  educative  value,  for  it  involves  greater 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  learner. 

It  may  be  that  teachers  should  use  more  illustrations  with  pupils 
of  average  capacity  than  they  now  employ,  and  that  usually  even  for 
the  most  gifted  too  few  are  used.  This  is  another  problem.  The 
point  here  is  that  if  a  sufficient  number  of  illustrations  are  now  used  for 
the  proper  teaching  of  average  children,  fewer  illustrations  are  needed 
for  efficient  teaching  of  gifted  children. 

4.  More  abstract  theory  and  more  teaching  by  principles.    The 

gifted  show  marked  ability  to  generalize,  to  see  underlying  principles, 
and  to  relate  similars.  Consequently,  they  can  be  taught  more  abstract 
theory  and  more  often  can  be  taught  by  means  of  principles.  They 
quickly  learn  elementary  principles  because  they  are  able  to  generalize 
easily  from  a  few  cases.19  They  are  able  to  think  in  terms  of  these 
principles  in  learning  other  principles  and  in  solving  problems.  One  of 
the  aims  for  the  gifted  is  that  they  should  develop  a  high  degree  of 


"Breslich  takes  a  somewhat  contrary  view.  He  says:  "It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  bright  and  rapid  pupils  may  need  to  do  more  work  to  assimilate  a  mathematical 
principle  than  is  necessary  for  the  slow,  but  careful  pupil.  While  the  latter  works  a 
few  problems,  trying  to  understand  and  to  remember  every  step,  the  former  sometimes 
progresses  rapidly  but  too  superficially,  so  that  he  attains  understanding  only  after 
having  worked  a  large  number  of  problems." 

Breslich,  Ernst  R.  "The  needs  of  the  superior  pupil  in  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics." Twenty-Third  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  I.    Bloomington,  Illinois:    Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924,  p.  375. 

[12] 


ability  to  reason.  Surely  types  of  learning  exercises  which  involve  the 
learning  of  abstract  theory  and  learning  by  means  of  principles  will 
train  in  the  highest  types  of  reasoning  ability. 

For  purposes  of  illustration,  an  example  may  be  taken  from  elemen- 
tary arithmetic.  In  learning  to  multiply  or  divide  by  multiples  of  ten, 
the  general  principles  of  adding  zeros  to  the  multiplicand  or  of  cutting 
off  a  corresponding  number  of  places  from  the  dividend  may  be  grasped 
immediately  by  the  brighter  pupils,  and  they  may  be  set  at  once  to 
acquiring  skill.  The  slower  pupils  need  to  do  a  number  of  preliminary 
exercises  before  they  grasp  the  general  principles  underlying  the  pro- 
cesses. As  an  illustration  of  teaching  more  abstractions,  it  is  a  well 
established  policy  to  teach  the  use  of  Roman  numerals  only  to  the 
brighter  pupils.  The  amount  of  abstractions  required  in  the  mastery  of 
Roman  numerals  is  too  great,  combined  with  their  limited  usage,  to 
justify  teaching  them  to  most  children. 

5.  More  excursions  and  field  trips.  This  type  of  learning  exercise 
is  closely  related  to  all  of  the  preceding  ones.  With  the  reduction  of 
drill  and  the  greater  emphasis  on  abstract  theory  and  principles,  the 
superior  children  have  greater  opportunity  to  reach  out  into  new  fields. 
Experience,  such  as  the  excursion,  offers  an  opportunity  for  them  to  see 
principles  and  theories  in  practice.  The  excursion  or  field  trip  supple- 
ments the  vicarious  experience  which  gifted  children  usually  gain 
through  extensive  reading.  Because  of  their  wide  knowledge  of  theories 
and  principles,  they  are  able  to  profit  greatly  from  trips  to  places  where 
these  theories  and  principles  are  in  actual  operation.  They  profit  vastly 
more  than  average  pupils,  for  the  latter  not  having  the  large  back- 
ground of  theory  are  confused  somewhat  at  the  time  by  the  mass  of 
details.  For  average  pupils,  excursions  provide  illustrative  material  and 
experiences  to  study  later  in  arriving  at  an  understanding  of  theories 
and  principles,  while  for  gifted  children  they  offer  mainly  an  opportunity 
to  see  theories  and  principles  in  practice  and  to  make  their  knowledge 
practical. 

Gifted  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  take  up  projects  which  they 
propose.  These  give  especial  opportunity  for  initiative  and  leadership. 
Other  projects  may  be  suggested  by  the  teacher,  who  in  all  cases  should 
carefully  supervise  the  work. 

6.  More  pupil  reports.  The  last  of  the  modifications  in  types  of 
learning  exercises  is  suggested  by  the  gifted  children's  superior  leader- 
ship qualities,  study  habits,  and  linguistic  abilities,  and  is  coordinated 
with  the  desired  outcome  of  independent  thinking  and  leadership.  Often 
the  experiences  gained  in  field  trips,  or  in  doing  projects  may  be  sum- 

[13] 


marized  in  a  report  to  the  class.  The  report  furnishes  an  appropriate 
stimulus  for  the  proper  completion  of  such  learning  exercises  and  gives 
added  training.  Gifted  children  have  more  to  talk  about  in  giving  their 
reports  than  do  other  pupils.  They  are  able  to  present  profitable 
material  and  can  deliver  their  reports  in  such  a  way  as  to  maintain 
interest.  And  with  it  all,  they  are  assuredly  developing  some  of  the 
desirable  characteristics  of  leadership  as  well  as  the  ability  to  think 
independently. 

Modifications  in  directing  the  doing  of  learning  exercises.    The 

modifications  in  the  learning  exercises  assigned  to  gifted  children  should 
be  supplemented  by  certain  modifications  in  the  procedures  employed 
in  directing  their  activities.  The  changes  suggested  here  are  grouped 
under  three  heads.  Naturally,  each  of  these  proposed  modifications  is 
more  or  less  intimately  tied  up  with  the  variations  in  types  of  learning 
exercises  and  grow  somewhat  out  of  the  same  characteristics  and  aims. 

1.  Less  effort  to  arouse  and  maintain  interest.  The  need  for  less 
effort  in  arousing  and  maintaining  interest  is  suggested  by  four  more  or 
less  closely  related  mental  characteristics:  (1)  intellectual  curiosity  and 
initiative,  (2)  wide  range  of  interests,  (3)  imagination,  and  (4)  power 
of  sustained  attention.  It  is  obvious  that  when  pupils  excel  in  these 
four  characteristics,  there  is  less  need  for  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  arouse  and  hold  their  interest.  Such  pupils  are  "naturally" 
interested  in  almost  anything  that  may  be  mentioned.  Furthermore, 
over-stimulation  results  in  a  disastrously  deadening  effect  later,  if  it 
does  not  kill  interest  as  an  immediate  consequence. 

This  suggestion  is  negative  in  so  far  as  the  gifted  pupils  are  con- 
cerned. However,  it  implies  that  the  teacher  should  direct  her  attention 
to  arousing  the  interest  of  the  slower  pupils,  remembering  that  they  are 
the  ones  to  be  watched  and  that  she  may  proceed  to  new  subject-matter 
at  almost  any  pace  and  still  retain  the  interest  of  the  brighter  pupils. 
For  example,  in  order  to  teach  the  multiplication  combinations  in  an 
effective  and  efficient  manner,  it  may  be  necessary  to  devise  games  that 
will  motivate  the  work  for  most  of  the  pupils.  But  the  brighter  pupils 
may  be  set  at  the  task  of  learning  the  multiplication  tables  and  probably 
will  do  it  with  a  zest  without  any  particular  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  motivate  the  exercise. 

2.  Evaluation  and  organization  of  knowledge  emphasized.  Gifted 
children  naturally  acquire  a  very  large  amount  of  information  both  in 
and  out  of  school.  Some  of  these  details  are  valuable  as  individual  facts, 
others  are  valuable  only  within  related  groups  of  facts,  while  still  others 
are  useful  only  as  they  help  in  building  up  and  understanding  abstrac- 

[14] 


tions  and  principles.  These  last,  especially,  must  be  well  organized. 
If  gifted  pupils  are  to  think  independently  and  effectively,  they  must 
see  clearly  the  relative  importance  of  details.  This  result  frequently  is 
accomplished  by  insistence  on  outlining  and  summarizing.  Careful 
supervision  of  pupils'  projects  and  reports  is  less  common-place  and 
formal,  but  probably  just  as  effective. 

3.  Assistance  only  when  there  is  a  real  need.  It  is  almost  needless 
to  say  that  gifted  pupils  are  very  superior  in  their  ability  to  get  them- 
selves out  of  difficulties  and  the  teacher  must  be  careful  to  judge  prop- 
erly when  assistance  is  really  needed.  Only  by  solving  their  own 
problems  and  working  out  their  own  solutions,  when  they  can  do  so 
efficiently,  are  pupils  going  to  develop  most  effectively  their  powers  of 
independent  work  and  thought,  their  initiative,  industry,  and  perhaps 
other  less  tangible  abilities. 

Summary.  The  following  are  terse  restatements  of  the  preceding 
suggestions  as  to  desirable  modifications  of  teaching  techniques. 

Modifications  of  learning  exercises  for  gifted  pupils. 

1.  The  amount  of  drill  should  be  reduced. 

2.  The  amount  of  review  should  be  reduced. 

3.  The  number  of  illustrations  should  be  reduced. 

4.  More  abstract  theory  should  be  taught  and  there  should  be 
more  teaching  by  means  of  principles. 

5.  More  excursions  and  field  trips  should  be  made  for  observing 
principles  and  theories  in  practice. 

6.  Pupil  reports  should  be  employed  to  a  greater  extent. 

Modifications  in  the  directing  of  the  doing  of  learning  exercises. 

1.  Effort  to  arouse  and  maintain  interest  may  be  reduced. 

2.  Evaluation  and  organization  should  be  emphasized. 

3.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  giving  assistance  until 
there  is  a  real  need  for  it. 


[15] 


IV.   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Breslich,  Ernst  R.  "Teaching  high-school  pupils  how  to  study," 
School  Review,  20:505-15,  October,  1912. 

Discusses  the  benefits  to  various  classes  of  pupils  which  are  derived  from  super- 
vised study. 

Bush,  Emma  D.  "An  experiment  in  varying  methods  of  teaching 
bright  and  dull  sections  of  the  seventh  grade,"  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Research,  8:113-21,  September,  1923. 

A  description  of  a  careful  experiment  with  definite  evidence  on  specific  points  of 
method.    Very  suggestive,  although  not  conclusive. 

Cleveland,  Elizabeth.    "Detroit's   experiment  with  gifted  children," 

School  and  Society,  12:179-83,  September  11,  1920. 

An  article  which  deals  with  many  phases  and  does  not  go  into  great  detail,  although 
excellent  in  parts. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  "Training  in  the 
technique  of  study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  2, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  20.  Urbana:  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois,  1924.   66  p. 

Chapter  V,  "How  bright  children  study,"  is  particularly  significant. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "An  annotated  bibliography  dealing  with  the 
classification  and  instruction  of  pupils  to  provide  for  individual 
differences."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  21,  Xo.  12,  Bureau 
of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  Xo.  16.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,  1923.    50  p. 

Contains  346  titles. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.,  et  al.  Genetic  Studies  of  Genius,  Vol.  I,  "Mental 
and  Phvsical   Traits   of  a   Thousand  Gifted   Children."    Stanford 

J 

University,  California:    Stanford  University  Press,  1925.    648  p. 
This  is  a  report  of  the  most  comprehensive,  thorough,  and  scientific  investigation 
yet  made  of  the  mental  and  physical  traits  of  gifted  children. 

"Adapting  the  schools  to  individual  differences."  Twenty-Fourth  Year- 
book of  the  Xational  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II. 
Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1925. 
410  p. 

This  yearbook  takes  up  chiefly  administrative  schemes  such  as  the  Dalton  Plan 
and  the  Winnetka  Plan,  discusses  their  external  features,  the  underlying  theories,  and 
the  results  achieved. 

[16] 


"Classroom  problems  in  the  education  of  gifted  children."  Nineteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 1920.    125  p. 

This  yearbook  is  devoted  almost  entirely  to  an  account  of  the  experimental  room 
at  Urbana  which  was  conducted  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Whipple.  It  is  very 
helpful. 

"The  education  of  gifted  children."     Twenty-Third  Yearbook  of  the 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.   Bloomington, 

Illinois:    Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1924.   443  p. 

The  most  complete  and  helpful  collection  of  studies  on  the  subject  yet  published. 
Contains  an  annotated  bibliography  of  453  titles. 


[17] 


